| Campaign at China-Burma Border | |||||||
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| Part of the Chinese Civil War | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
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National Revolutionary Army |
People's Liberation Army Tatmadaw[1] |
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
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Liu Yuanlin (柳元麟), Wu Yunnuan (吴运暖), Zhang Weicheng (张伟成), Li Mi (李弥) |
Li Xifu (黎锡福), Ding Rongchang (丁荣昌), Cui Jiangong (崔建功) |
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| Strength | |||||||
| 10,000 | 6,700 | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 741 fatalities | 258 combat 800+ non combat losses |
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The Campaign along the China-Burma Border (中缅边境作战) was a series of battles fought between the nationalists and the communists during Chinese Civil War in the post World War II era, and resulted in the communist victory. It is also dubbed by the communists as the Campaign to Provide Security for the China-Burma Border Surveying (中缅边境勘界警卫作战).
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After the communist revolution in China, some surviving nationalist forces withdrew to Burma and continued to fight. Under the international pressure, nationalist government in Taiwan withdrew the surviving force in the China-Burma border totaling over 6,500 in May, 1954. However, many ardent nationalists refused to retreat to Taiwan and decided to stay in Burma and carry on the anticommunist struggle. To better lead these troops, nationalist government sent the original deputy commander-in-chief, Liu Yuanlin (柳元麟) back to Burma to form Yunnan People’s Anticommunist Volunteer Army in June, 1954. By early 1960s, the nationalist force in northern Burma had reached its peak, totaling near ten thousand troops. Because there were much higher proportion of officers among the nationalist force in the China-Burma border, the structure of nationalist force in northern Burma was different than ordinary military structure: Yunnan People’s Anticommunist Volunteer Army was organized into five armies, each was consisted of two to three divisions, and each of these divisions, in turn, was directly consisted of two to three regiments, while the brigades level structure was eliminated. The size of each regiment of Yunnan People’s Anticommunist Volunteer Army various greatly in size, from two dozen troops to over a thousand troops. The nationalist force controlled an area that was 300 km long along the China-Burma border, and 100 km deep. The nationalist area of control was typical mountainous jungle regions, with raining season last six months and the area was covered by fogs for most of the time. It was extremely difficult to navigate in the region where there were few road and trails, and the natural environment was extremely harsh.
In 1960, Burmese premier Ne Win visited China and signed a deal aimed to solve the historical disputes between the China and Burma on January 28, 1960. In October, 1960, Burmese premier U Nu and Burmese chief-of-general-staff General Ne Win visited China once again and on October 1, 1960, they signed a new border treaty with Chinese premier Zhou Enlai. According to the treaty, the China-Burma border had to be surveyed for demarcation, but the existence of nationalist force in northern Burma along the border posed a serious threat. Burmese government consequently asked the Chinese communists to help to eradicate the Chinese nationalist force in the border region.
In October, 1960, the communist high command ordered Kunming Military Region to prepare for the campaign. In early November, 1960, communists and Burmese government held a joint conference on the matter of communist force fighting in Burma. The Burmese representatives were headed by Brigadier Generals Aung Gyi and San Yu, and the Chinese communist representatives were headed by Ding Rongchang (丁荣昌), the deputy commander-in-chief of the communist Yunan Provincial Military Region, and Cheng Xueyu (成学渝), the director of Border Defense Directorate of the War Department of the General Staff Ministry of the People's Liberation Army. By November 4, 1960, the deal was signed in which communist force was allowed to fight in Burma in a region that was 20 km deep, 300 km long, along the border.
On November 14, 1960, the communist central military committee formally issued the order to cross the border to destroy the Nationalist troops in Burma according to the personal direction of Zhou Enlai. The political implication of the campaign was specially emphasized and failure was not an option. The communist force would be mainly deployed in Mengma (孟马), Mengwa (孟瓦) and Sandao (三岛) regions. The communists intended to avoid scattering the enemy, but instead, complete annihilating the enemy by first cutting off the retreating route of the nationalists after a surprised attack. Restrictions on the communist actions were also implement, for example, if the nationalists were to retreat toward Burma-Thailand-Laotian border, communists could not gave a chase on its own, and must be coordinated with Burmese government first, just as in any situation that would occur unexpectedly. The local civilian casualties should be avoided at all cost. After receiving the order, the communist Kunming Military Region decided to mobilize five infantry regiments and militias totaling over 6,500 for campaign, including a regiment from the 39th Division of the 13th Army, a regiment of the of 40th Division of the 14th Army, and three border defense regiments. To better coordinate their actions in Burma, communists form a frontline command at Fohai (佛海) in early November, 1960. Li Xifu (黎锡福), the commander-in-chief of the communist Yunan Provincial Military Region was named as the commander-in-chief of the new frontline command, Ding Rongchang (丁荣昌), the deputy commander-in-chief of the communist Yunan Provincial Military Region and Cui Jiangong (崔建功), the deputy commander of the communist 13th Army were named as the deputy commanders-in-chief of the new frontline command.
The surviving nationalist force at the China-Burma border reached its peak in the early 1960s, totaling almost ten thousand troops, excluding their noncombatant family members. The nationalist force was divided into five armies and each responsible for an area. There were also Ximeng (西盟) Military Region and Mengbailiao (孟白了) Garrison Region in addition to the five areas of responsibility of the five armies. Communists mobilized sixty-five hundred troops, out of which forty-five hundred were deployed during the campaign.
Yunnan People’s Anticommunist Volunteer Army (commander-in-chief: Liu Yuanlin 柳元麟)
Both sides had been limited by various factors. The nationalists, due to their low numbers, adopted the strategy to avoid fighting any large scale battles, but instead, concentrated on keeping their own strength, so that in the event of communist offensive, they would quickly withdraw away from the China-Burma border. The communists, on the other hand, was bounded by the redline that limited their actions, which eventually resulted in the successful escape of nationalists to the Thailand-Laos border keeping most of their strength.
The nationalist frontline bordering China was 300 km long and 20 km deep, and was the main target of the communist offensive. There were a total of 22 nationalist strongholds in the region, including the headquarters of the nationalist 1st Army and 4th Army, 2nd Division, 3rd Division, 5th Division, 6th Division, eight regimental headquarters, eight guerrilla strike teams. The nationalist strength in the region totaled more than 800 troops and was divided into three lines of defense. The first line of defense was manned the nationalist 1st Army and its 3rd Division totaling over 150 troops, stationed in strongholds including Mengwa (孟瓦), Mengyu (孟育), Mengjing (孟景), and Jingkang (景康), and with the exception of Jingkang (景康), all of the nationalist strongholds in their first line of defense faced the Southern Luo (洛) River and with hilly forest in the back, and all of the roads and trails to and from China was heavily mined. The nationalist 4th Army deployed to the south and east of Mengyong (孟勇) was the backbone of the nationalist 2nd line of defense, and its 35th Regiment totaling over 200 was stationed at the critical peak 1404. The Mengbailiao (孟白了) and Jiangle (江勒) regions was the nationalist 3rd line of defense, with the general headquarter of the nationalist commander-in-chief Liu Yuanlin () setup in Mengbailiao (孟白了), with training group, garrison regiment and communication battalion totaling over 450 troops. Jiangle (江勒) region was the nationalist logistic headquarter totaling over 200 troops, including the 1st Training Group.
Communists divided the combat zone into smaller individual areas and planned to cut off the retreating routes of the nationalists. The 117th Regiment and a portion of the 116th Regiment of the 39th Division of the Communist 13th Army were tasked to destroy the headquarter of the nationalist 4th Army at Mengma (孟马), the nationalist 6th Division, 2nd Division, 5th Regiment, 17th Regiment and 4 guerrilla strike teams totaling 439 troops. In reality, the communists overestimated the nationalist strength, which only totaled 334 troops. The 118th Regiment of the 40th Division of the communist 14th Army was tasked to destroy the headquarter of the nationalist 1st Army at Mengwa (孟瓦), garrison battalion, headquarter of the nationalist 3rd Division, the 8th Regiment, the 9th Regiment, and a guerrilla strike team totaling 265 troops. Once again, the communists overestimated the nationalist strength, which only totaled 156 troops.
The 11th Border Defense Regiment of communist Yunnan Simao Military Sub-region was tasked to destroy the nationalist 7th Regiment and a guerrilla strike team totaling 59 troops, but the communist intelligence had underestimated the nationalist strength, which totaled 81 troops. The 9th and 10th Border Defense Regiments of communist Yunnan Simao Military Sub-region were tasked to destroy the headquarter of the nationalist 5th Division at Barbarians’ Nest (Manwo, 蛮窝), the 14th Regiment, the 1st Regiment and two guerrilla strike teams totaling 159 troops. Once again, the communist intelligence had underestimated the nationalist strength which actually totaled 171 troops. The communists mobilized a total of 6639 troops of their own, though not all of them had crossed the border. The communists divided their forces into 22 routes and would attack in the early morning of November 22, 1960 by crossing the border.
The communist 2nd Company of the 9th Regiment of Border Defense and the 2nd Company of the 10th Regiment of Border Defense were tasked to attack nationalist strongholds at Man’enai (曼俄乃), and reached their target by 5:00 AM on November 22, 1960. However, the numerical inferior nationalist troops had just learned the news of the upcoming attack and retreated by abandoning the stronghold. Communist main force immediately sent out four companies to chase after the retreating nationalists and caught up with the fleeing nationalists around ten kilometers to the south of the stronghold. After ensuing battles that included mop up operation, thirty-three nationalist troops including Li Tai (李泰), the commander of the nationalist 5th Division were killed, marking the complete destruction of nationalist garrison of Man’enai (曼俄乃) stronghold. Meanwhile, communist force consisted of the 117th infantry regiment under the command of Yan Shouqing (阎守庆), the deputy commander of the 39th Division, and the 118th infantry regiment under the command of Zhao Shiying (赵世英), the commander of the 40th Division, and the 1st Battalion of the 116th infantry regiment attacked nationalist positions in Mengwa (孟瓦), and Mengma (孟马). The numerical inferior nationalist force at these positions were no match with an enemy that enjoyed overwhelmingly superior number and firepower, and the communist 117th infantry regiment succeeded in completely wiping out a sixty member strong nationalist battalion at the Tabanmai (踏板卖) stronghold and the sixty-two member strong nationalist battalion of the 7th Regiment at Mengxie (孟歇) stronghold. Major General Meng Baoye (蒙宝业) and Colonel Meng Xian (蒙显), the commander and deputy commander of the nationalist 2nd Division were both killed in action. Communist 118th infantry regiment meanwhile attacked nationalist positions at Mengwa (孟瓦), Jingkang (景康), Mengyu (孟育) and Mengjing (孟景), succeeding in killing over a hundred nationalist troops and capturing Colonel Ye Wenqiang (叶文强), the deputy commander of the nationalist 3rd Division.
After several hours of fierce battle, the headquarters of nationalist 1st Army, 2nd Division, 3rd Division, 5th Division, 7th Regiment, and 8th Regiment were completely destroyed. However, due to the complete lack of experience in jungle warfare in the mountainous region, half of the six communist task forces assigned to outflank the targets failed to reach their destination on time. Similarly, seven out of the sixteen communist task forces assigned for direct assaults failed to reach their targets on time. As a result, communists only managed to completely annihilate nationalist forces at six targets out of the original sixteen, with the nationalist forces at the rest ten slipped away. The subsequent mop up operation ended on December 20, 1960, marking the end of the first state of the campaign, succeeding in killing a total of 467 nationalist troops in the region bounded by the redline, or only 53.4% of original target set by the communists. After the operation, Burmese government asked the communist force to stay in Burma to guard the local region from possible nationalist counterattacks, and Zhou Enlai, the Chinese premier agreed and ordered the Chinese communist troops to stay until the demarcation was completed.
After the first stage of the campaign had concluded, the surviving nationalists decided that their strength was no match with superior communist force and it was best to avoid direct confrontation with the enemy to conserve their strength. Instead, nationalists would gain new territories from Burmese government by attack Burmese troop to makeup the territory lost to the communists in the first stage of the campaign. Burmese troop could not check the nationalist advance and in the evening of January 18, 1961, Burmese liaison officers asked Chinese communists for help on the order given by their government. Communists decided to mobilize over 5,800 troops to launch the second stage of the campaign in late January to attack nationalists beyond the redline. The communists and the Burmese government reached a deal to allow the communist force to operate another 50 km further beyond the redline to engage the three thousand nationalist troops in Suoyong (索永) and Mengbailiao (孟白了) regions. To better coordinate their actions, communists established their frontline headquarter in Fohai (佛海), with the deputy commander Cui Jiangong (崔建功) of the 13th Army as the commander, chief-of-staff Liang Zhongyu (梁中玉) of the 14th Army and deputy director of the political directorate Duan Siying (段思英) as deputy commanders.
Communist 117th Regiment leading the 2,966 strong attacking force was tasked to attack the surviving units of the nationalist 4th Army, the 2nd Division, the 9th Division, the 10th Division, the 11th Division, the 7th Group of the Training Column, the Heavy Weaponry Group totaling over 1,200. Another communist force consisted of the 10th Regiment and the 11th Regiment of the Border Defense of Simao Military Sub-region totaled 1,420 was tasked to attack the surviving nationalist forces totaling more than 680, including surviving forces of the nationalist general headquarter in Suoyong (索永), the headquarter of the 2nd Army in Baka (八卡), the headquarter of 1st Army at Daling (大棱) River Crossing point, the 3rd Division, the 8th Division, and Zhongka (中卡) Squadron. The largest communist force totaling 3,012 headed by the communist 118th Regiment was tasked to attack the surviving units of nationalist totaling over 1,200, including those from southern frontline command headquarter, garrison regiment, Training Column (without its 7th Group), 2nd Group of the Training Column, 35th Regiment of the 3rd Army, and Officer Training Regiment.
On January 25, 1961, all communist units begun their assault by crossing the redline, and attacking toward the regions to the north and west of Mekong River. Nationalist commander-in-chief Liu Yuanlin (柳元麟) realized the communist objective and immediately ordered a general retreat toward Burma-Laotian border on the very same night under the cover of darkness, abandoning the base they had controlled for more than a decade. By the next day, nationalist strongholds including Baxili, (巴西里), Suoyong (索永), and Mengbailiao (孟白了) fell into the communist hands, and the nationalist rear guards in charge of covering the retreat of the main force was destroyed. The communist force subsequently performed search and destroy operations to exterminate the surviving nationalists in the newly taken region, and succeeded in killing the nationalist Colonel Li Zixiong (李自雄), the director of political directorate, and Colonel Bai Xianglin (白湘麟), a regimental commander. However, due to numerous problems, with the exception of communist force of Simao Military Sub-region which reached Baxili, (巴西里), its planned destination on time, all other communist forces failed to reach their planned destination on time, resulting in only killing 274 nationalist troops. In addition to successfully escaping to their new destination several hundred kilometers away in the border region of Burma-Lao-Thailand, the retreating nationalists also successfully managed to carry most of the equipment, supply and wounded with them in their escape. On February 9, 1961, the second stage concluded when all communist force withdrew back to China, marking the end of the campaign.
The communists succeeded in driving the nationalists from their base they held for more than a decade, thus returning the control of an area in access of thirty thousand square kilometers with population over a hundred thousand to Burmese government. However, the campaign also revealed serious and huge shortcomings of the communist troop in jungle warfare, and due to these problems revealed later in the communist post war analysis, most of the retreating nationalists were able to successfully escape to the Thai-Laotian border several hundred kilometers away, and forming the new base that survived until this day. For the nationalists, despite losing their thirty thousand square kilometers sized base with population over a hundred thousand they had held for more than a decade, nationalists nonetheless managed to retain most of their troops (around 90%) and equipment to successfully escape and establish new bases in new area. However, the new area was far less fertile than the land in their original base they had lost, and this forced the nationalists in the new base to be increasingly dependent on opium production and trade, and most of their area of control eventually became part of the infamous Golden Triangle.
Thanks to the opportunity to fight a campaign in the unfamiliar terrain and environment, the communist victory had exposed many problems that were nearly impossible to detect during peacetime. The communists concluded that the fighting capability of their troops had significantly decreased just merely a decade after the nationalists had been driven from the mainland China. Furthermore, the old experience that helped them to secure the victory over the nationalists in mainland China was completely ill-suited for the modern jungle warfare and many problems urgently needed to be addressed, including:
The communists were shocked by the shortcomings exposed in the campaign. The deputy chief-of-staff and the future Chinese defense minister in the 1980s, Zhang Aiping, and the commander-in-chief of Kunming Military Region and the future Chinese defense minister in the 1990s, Qin Jiwei (秦基伟), were sent to lead a team to establish new training and tactics based on the experience gained in the campaign in order to correct the problem. As a result, the military of both the Kunming Military Region and Guangzhou Military Region was drastically upgraded and improved in very short period of time after massive efforts were implemented. The improved later proved to be vital when Chinese troops were deployed to North Vietnam and Laos during the Chinese involvement in Vietnam War.
| Main events pre-1945 | Main events post-1945 | Specific articles |
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Part of the Cold War
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Primary participants |